Essay of Writting

America is a big country with a diverse range of cultures that exist therein. Because of the many cultural influences that come from outside of America do not rule out the native american culture change itself. Cultures were taken from outside America because the migrants are still thick using its own culture makes America a nation that grows in line with evolving constantly evolving culture. American liberals made ​​freely express their culture.

TASK 3

1. The slogan means America is a place where people can speak and think as they want to. This is also a country where people can choose not to believe in something. In order to form a more unifying country it is important to create a motto that truly represents all of us.

2. In the history of Indonesia, all people are well aware that even though they are under an Indonesian, but they still wear those entities that "authentic / genuine" in the context of race, religion and belief, language, customs and so on. Indeed, diversity does not cause strife, but a source of wealth of the nation that leads the nation to move forward in harmony. However, the sad reality we see today. How can one resist religious groups religious group to another, even with anarchy. How does one ethnic discrimination when entering the other ethnic regions. How racial issues into a political commodity and tools of access to economic resources and political, of misleading the public over the meanings of pluralism in Indonesia.

Interaksi Sosial

 1. a) Kerjasama: Kelompok untuk mencapai tujuan bersama.
Contoh : Instagram.
        Instagram adalah sebuah aplikasi berbagi foto yang memungkinkan pengguna mengambil foto, menerapkan filter digital, dan membagikannya ke berbagai layanan jejaring sosial, termasuk milik Instagram sendiri. Satu fitur yang unik di Instagram adalah memotong foto menjadi bentuk persegi, sehingga terlihat seperti hasil kamera Kodak Instamatic dan Polaroid. Hal ini berbeda dengan rasio aspek 4:3 yang umum digunakan oleh kamera pada peralatan bergerak.

Instagram dapat digunakan di iPhone, iPad atau iPod Touch versi apapun dengan sistem operasi iOS 3.1.2 atau yang terbaru dan telepon kamera Android apapun dengan sistem operasi 2.2 (Froyo) atau yang terbaru. Aplikasi ini tersebar melalui Apple App Store dan Google Play.

  b) Akomodasi: Akomodasi merupakan salah satu cara untuk menyelesaikan pertentangan, baik dengan cara menghargai kepribadian yang berkonflik atau bisa juga dengan cara paksaan atau tekanan.
Contoh: Satpol PP bongkar paksa kios PKL
Pedagang kaki lima yang mencari rezeki di jalan palapa satu Pontianak kecewa, karena kios yang sehari-hari mereka gunakan untuk mencari rezeki di bongkar paksa satpol pp kota pontianak jumat [12/10] pagi. Satpol pp terpaksa membongkar lapak tersebut karena dibangun diatas fasilitas umum.

c) Asimilasi: Asimilasi merupakan usaha–usaha mengurangi perbedaan antara orang atau kelompok dengan mempererat kesatuan tindakan, sikap, dan perasaan dengan memperhatikan kepentingan serta tujuan bersama. Faktor pendukung asimilasi adalah toleransi, kesempatan dibidang ekonomi yang seimbang, menghargai kebudayaan lain, terbuka, ada persamaan unsur kebudayaan, perwakilan campuran dan musuh bersama dari luar. 
Contoh: Budaya Batak dan Tiong Hoa di Sumatra Utara
 Para pedagang Tionghoa yang tinggal di daerah Tapanuli sadar bahwa mereka merupakan pendatang sehingga mereka berusaha belajar bahasa Batak dan menyesuaikan diri dengan adat istiadat setempat karena dianggap menguntungkan bagi usaha perdagangan mereka. Sebaliknya, anggota masyarakat Batak Toba yang tinggal di Medan berusaha menyesuaikan diri dengan kebudayaan masyarakat setempat yang didominasi etnik Tionghoa. Selanjutnya, ia akan belajar bahasa Cina karena pengetahuan tersebut dianggap berguna dalam melakukan transaksi perdagangan dengan warga keturunan Tionghoa.


d) Akulturasi: Akulturasi adalah proses penerimaan dan pengolahan unsur-unsur kebudayaan asing menjadi bagian dari kebudayaan suat kelompok tanpa menghilangkan kepribadian kebudayaan asli.
Contoh: Sepatu Batik
Dalam dunia fashion biasanya sepatu hanyalah bermotif polos dan sepadan. Sepatu merupakan alas kaki yang berasal dari budaya luar dan dipadukan dengan motif batik yang berasal dari Indonesia lalu diolah menjadi sepatu batik.



2. a) Budaya tanpa kontak fisik.

Tarian: Tarian merupakan salah satu budaya yang berfungsi sebagai ciri khas gerakan suatu daerah tanpa melakukan kontak fisik.

b) Budaya komunikasi non verbal.

Bendera kuning:
Bendera kuning merupakan tanda/ alat berita untuk memberitahu bahwa ada seseorang telah meninggal dunia di kediaman rumah orang tersebut.

Tugas Kampus

Essays of writing

Part 1

Betawi or not Betawi?

The Jakarta Post, Jakarta | City | Thu, August 26 2010, 10:07 AM

A- A A+

Debates over native Jakartans or Betawi cultural identity are still ongoing with Betawi marginalized communities asking for official recognition as a part of Betawi. 

The issue has come to surface following the city administration’s plan to open a Betawi arts center, which will facilitate only Muslim Betawi culture, known as Central Betawi.

The administration plans to refurbish a former military command post on Jl. Raya Bekasi, East Jakarta, into an arts center thanks to the idea from the Betawi Consultative Body (Bamus Betawi), a body supervising activities of the Betawi Culture Institution (LKB). The arts center is expected to open in 2012.

A historian and Betawi expert from Cina Benteng community in Sewan, Tangerang, Mona Lohanda, said that the plan was good and yet ridiculous.

“[Bamus Betawi and LKB] are very ethnocentric, demeaning other marginalized Betawi cultures, known as Betawi Pinggir, especially the Cina Benteng,” Mona told The Jakarta Post recently.

“They always use the excuse of religion that sometimes irrationally excludes us,” said Mona, who also chairs the Indonesian National Archives (ANRI). 

She underlines that the Cina Benteng, along with the Betawi-Portuguese Tugu community and other non-Muslim Betawi communities were part of Betawi culture. 

“It’s ridiculous that they claim Gambang Kromong of Cina Benteng, which is very Chinese, as their art, while they deny us as part of Betawi,” said the University of London master’s graduate and an author 
of book The Kapitan of Batavia 1937-1942.

She added that both Bamus Betawi and LKB also have failed to preserve many of their art, including percussion instrument rebana.

Andre Juan Michiels, head of the Tugu Family Community, a marginalized Betawi-Portuguese ancestry in North Jakarta, said that, “Well yes, it’s not fair that the Betawi people [the city and Bamus] claim our music, keroncong tugu, as theirs, while they don’t recognize us as part of Betawi ethnicity.” 

He added that Betawi had no single root.

“If they claimed to have their own music or traditional art, please show it to the public,” he said.

University of Indonesia cultural analyst Yasmine Zaky Shahab, who maps Betawi culture, said that Betawi, the indigenous ethnic group of Jakarta, develops from a mixture of ethic groups and eventually forms a new identity, which is different from the others.

She divides Betawi into three groups, namely Kota (Urban), Tengah (Central/on-between) and Pinggir (Rural/Marginal), based on where they lived. The Betawi Kota people live around the once-walled city of Kota in West Jakarta and Weltevreden, now the Banteng Square in Central Jakarta. The Betawi Pinggir are those living in Tangerang and Bekasi, and were strongly influenced by Chinese culture. The Betawi Tengah people are those living between the two previous groups who are mostly influenced by Arab culture.

Many influences mixing together in to the Betawi culture is the reason people see that some Betawi people have a strong Islamic faith, while some others have leanings toward Chinese traditions, Yasmine says. 

A Betawi expert, Bondan Kanumoyoso, said that, “Betawi is an invented culture, along with its music and traditional art”. 

He said that both Betawi and these marginalized cultural communities often did not realize that they had similarities to one and another, which made them one in terms of culture.

“Betawi identity was not merely united by religion. Betawi is often perceived as a Muslim ethnic just because Islam is a factor that unites them more and has eventually changed their identity,” he said.

He urged the city administration Betawi Consultative Body not to use Islam as a reason to deny other Betawi communities. (ipa)

 

comment: Betawi develops from a mixture of ethic groups and eventually forms a new identity. It should be an in depth review, and not only because unilateral assessment.

 

 

Part 2 

Ethnocentrim in Pop Culture

In the Movies

Ethnocentrism is not often presented as such a serious problem in movies, and is more often seen as a sort of entertaining device. The father in My Big Fat Greek Wedding constantly states that he can trace any word back to Greek origins. Furthermore, the entire movie is centered around the thrills and issues of planning a Greek wedding. Ultimately though, the movie has a happy ending, subtly suggesting that the positives outweigh the negatives.

Another example of ethnocentrism that is covered with humor occurs in the comedy American Wedding. Upon learning that her grandson is not marrying a Jewish girl, Jim's grandmother becomes inconsolable. Furthermore, Michelle's father makes the mistake of toasting to his soon-to-be in laws with hopes that they will sit many happy shivas together. He is painted as a fool for his statement, and the movie subtly indicates a Jewish ethnocentrism.

comment: In the world of entertainment, incorporating elements of Ethnocentrim is not be sensitive, because without realizing it we can study and understand the cultural differences with one another.

tugas kampus

TASK

1. Culture

• Culture refers to the cumulative deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs, values, attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, religion, notions of time, roles, spatial relations, concepts of the universe, and material objects and possessions acquired by a group of people in the course of generations through individual and group striving.
• Culture is the systems of knowledge shared by a relatively large group of people.
• Culture is communication, communication is culture.
• Culture in its broadest sense is cultivated behavior; that is the totality of a person's learned, accumulated experience which is socially transmitted, or more briefly, behavior through social learning.
• A culture is a way of life of a group of people--the behaviors, beliefs, values, and symbols that they accept, generally without thinking about them, and that are passed along by communication and imitation from one generation to the next.
• Culture is symbolic communication. Some of its symbols include a group's skills, knowledge, attitudes, values, and motives. The meanings of the symbols are learned and deliberately perpetuated in a society through its institutions.
• Culture consists of patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for behavior acquired and transmitted by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievement of human groups, including their embodiments in artifacts; the essential core of culture consists of traditional ideas and especially their attached values; culture systems may, on the one hand, be considered as products of action, on the other hand, as conditioning influences upon further action.
• Culture is the sum of total of the learned behavior of a group of people that are generally considered to be the tradition of that people and are transmitted from generation to generation.
• Culture is a collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from another.

Counterculture iscounterculture is a term used to describe a cultural group whose values and norms are at odds with those of the social mainstream, a cultural equivalent of a political opposition. In casual practice, the term came to prominence in the general press as it was used to refer to the youth rebellion that swept Western societies in the 1960s and early 1970s. Earlier countercultural milieus in 19th century Europe included the traditions of Bohemianism and of the Dandy.
Like many social movements such as Protestantism, Islam, the Crusades, the Enlightenment and so on, it has tended to have become capitalized thus: "Counterculture", and that tends to be how it is spelled in this wikia as an indication of its historical and social importance (though the wikia itself is "branded" thus: "CounterCulture".

This movement was a reaction against the conservative social mores of the 1950s, the political conservatism (and perceived social repression) of the Cold War period, and the US government's extensive military intervention in Vietnam. Opposition to the war was exacerbated in the US by the compulsory military draft.

The 1960s youth rebellion largely originated on college campuses, emerging directly out of the USA Civil Rights movement. The Free Speech Movement at the University of California, Berkeley was one early example, as a socially privileged group of students began to identify themselves as having interests as a class that were at odds with the interests and practices of the university and its corporate sponsors.

Today, 'Counterculture' is used to describe moving in a theological or material direction that is not the accepted norm in society eyes; this is most easily seen in its manifestation in the media. However, it is strange to see how Counterculture movements quickly become the spearhead of commercial campaigns and how once taboo ideas (men wearing a "women's color" - pink) become popular trends.

 

2.  The comparative study of cultures  contributes a
fresh perspective to  concepts central  to  multicultural
teaching  and learning;  specifically,  the  concepts  of
cultural pluralism and the plural society.
Cultural pluralism is  a concept developed in  the
context of European administration of heterogeneous,
complex societies;  principally,  in Burma, Ceylon (Sri
Lanka), and the Caribbean. Created through colonial
intervention,  plural  societies  are  characterized  by
heterogeneous populations drawn together for politioeconomic, not cultural, reasons. Plural societies have a
characteristic intermix of differing &dquo;races&dquo;  and cultural
systems.  Plural  societies  are characterized  by social,
spacial, normative, cultural, and institutional stratification  and  isolation.  Plural  societies  do  not  evolve
through collective effort  and sociocultural concensus;
plural societies are the byproduct of conquest. Pluralism is colonialistic and exploitative. Plural societies are
neither integrative,  representative,  participatory,  nor
democratic. The concept of pluralism is as much sociopolitical and historical as it is cultural. Multiculturalism
implies a
process through which a
person develops competence in  several  cultures.  Pluralism implies limited
cultural interaction and sharing.  Ethnological anthropology suggests that education might strive for a multicultural rather than pluralistic society and culture.

Plural  societies  are characterized by structurally
subordinate  subgroups or  subcultures  exhibiting  differential  patterns of access to strategic  and culturally
valued  resources.  As  concerns  its  component
subgroups, the plural society assumes a separate-yetunequal stance.  This notion of subculture undergirds
the  multicultural  approach to  education.  Within the
United  States,  the  educational  anthropologist  John
Ogbu (1974) distinguishes immigrant from subordinate
minorities.  Characteristically,  immigrant  minorities,
such as Italians or Germans, are historically and linguistically part of a continential,  European tradition;
vis-a-vis  Anglo superordinates,  immigrant minorities
become &dquo;White&dquo;  ethnics.  Comparatively, ethnic social
status and degree of sociocultural access is  based more
on culture  and history  than  on &dquo;race.&dquo;  Multiethnic
teaching and learning becomes the comparative, sociological study of differing sociohistorical aspects of an
encompassing  European  tradition.  Such  subordinate
minorities as Native and African-Americans are characterized by a
comparatively fixed social status, rank, and
degree  of  sociocultural  access  as  based  on culture,
behavior, language, and &dquo;race.&dquo;  A multicultural education focuses on non-European cultural  traditions and
histories.  Inherently,  multicultural  teaching  and
learning is cross-cultural and anthropological.

Popularly, it is assumed that individuals have only
a
single cultural orientation.  However, and especially
within  heterogeneous  societies,  ethnological  material
suggests that it is possible, if not normal, for individuals
to  participate  in  and to  understand several  cultures
(Goodenough, 1976).  Multicultural competence is  not
assimilation;  being multicultural does not require the
dropping of  one’s  parent  culture.  The experience  of
living in a
complex, heterogeneous national and international  society  assumes multiculturalism.  The more
heterogeneous and complex the culture, the less a prototypic representative of that culture exists.
Most Americans have overlapping and often competing  cultural  identities  and loyalties.  Multicultural
teaching and learning must resist the popular tendency
of conceiving cultures and subcultures as
pristine entities :  fixed,  unchanging,  and archetypic.  There is  no
&dquo;Indian&dquo;  culture; at present, there are
only various individual Americans who have Onondaga or
Hopi parent
cultural  orientations.  One is  not  so  much &dquo;Indian&dquo;-
American  as
Hopi-American.  For  both  the  cultural
anthropologist and the multicultural teacher, an overemphasis on surface custom promotes stereotyping. An
exclusive focus on &dquo;stoicism&dquo;  or powwows or teepees or
tomahawks tends  to  freeze  individuals  into  a  rigid,
monocultural image-an image that does not change.
From both within and without, a Sioux or Ute wanting
to become a
corporate banker might be accused of &dquo;not
being Indian.&dquo;  Custom does not equal culture. An overemphasis on custom,  especially  &dquo;traditional&dquo;  custom,
denys contemporary Americans multicultural competence. The cultural alternative for which multiculturalism might strive is  the situation where it  is  culturally
logical to be both a Sioux and a banker as well as Jewish
and a
cowboy.
An ethnological critique of cultural pluralism and
the plural society suggests that multicultural teaching
and learning strive toward a sociocultural reality of balanced  cultural  alternatives.  Multiculturalism  must
allow  individuals  to  optimize  and maximize a  vast
array of cultural resources. True multiculturalism is the
cultural freedom to,  at  will,  participate in many cultures-each having equal access to socially valued and
strategic  resources.  In  and of itself  though,  multiculturalism  cannot  solve  the  structural  inequalities  of
pluralism (Lewis, 1976). Only with the sterilization of
racism and cultural  imperialism will  a true multicultural society emerge. Multiculturalism though, can act
so as to foster, it not social, then cultural democracy.
The ethnological perspective further yields a more
inclusive view of the structure of American society and
culture. For better or worse, anthropology reflects the
reality  of  how we are  related,  under what circumstances,  one to  the  other ... and why. The United
States is a swirl of differing cultural histories and traditions. There is  no one &dquo;model&dquo;  American. The United
States is dominated by a national Anglo-Saxon-JudaeoChristian influence we term &dquo;American.&dquo; The country is
institutionally integrated (i.e.,  compulsory schooling),
yet characterized by structural inequality.  The ethnological record is again useful in suggesting that schools,
in part,  are institutionalized mechanisms for differentially enculturating subgroups into this national culture
(Cohen, 1970).  Culturally, schools seek to integrate a
plural condition by transferring local, subcultural allegience to national,  supralocal allegience.  One pledges
allegience to the United States-not to Burton Comers
or Grandma Agnes. Vis-a-vis &dquo;Chinese,&dquo;  &dquo;Russian,&dquo;  or
&dquo;African&dquo;  national societies (themselves complex multicultural entities),  we are all  taught to be &dquo;American.&dquo;
Schools integrate  as much as they segregate.  At this
level, we all become &dquo;model&dquo;  Americans.

3. BETWEEN ETHNOCENTRISM AND ASSIMILATION: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY OF THE CHALLENGES AND COPING STRATEGIES OF EXPATRIATE MANAGERS

Based on exploratory interviews with 116 German expatriate managers in Japan and the U.S., this study examined the challenges that expatriates confront in international assignments, the coping strategies that they utilize in response to these challenges, and the effectiveness of these coping strategies. The interviews were fully transcribed, content-analysed by independent raters, and supplemented by data from a survey questionnaire and adjustment scales. The findings revealed that the most troublesome problems that expatriates encountered overseas originated from poor career planning and impaired relations with corporate headquarters. Most other problems can be understood in terms of cross-cultural differences in management systems, work processes, communication patterns, and life style. The identified coping strategies cover a wide range of behavior, both open and intrapsychic, with coping activities that serve to regulate stressful emotions predominating over coping forms that are instrumental towards establishing interpersonal relationships, adjusting to the host culture, and achieving the task goals of the assignment. The findings further indicated that the coping strategies used by expatriates were only moderately effective or even counter-productive in reducing the strains of living and working overseas. A number of coping dispositions were identified that discriminate between effective and ineffective expatriate managers. Further analyses revealed that the nature of the challenges faced overseas, the types of coping strategies used, and the effectiveness of these coping strategies depend on such contingencies as the host country, position level, and stage of assignment. The findings thus call for a contingency approach to the study and management of expatriates.